INDIVIDUAL DUTY BASIC PLANT PROTECTION
"Plant Disease Control Strategies"
Prepared to Meet Basic Tasks Subjects Plant Protection
By:
Muhammad Guruh Arif Zulfahmi
(105040201111091)
STUDY PROGRAM AGROEKOTEKNOLOGI
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
UNIVERSITY BRWIJAYA
MALANG
2010/2011
PLANT DISEASE CONTROL STRATEGY
Epidemics and crop development
Agriculture in Indonesia has a long history, especially
in the plantation sector. Arabica coffee cultivation began around 1700 -
's and is the oldest plantation in Indonesia. In the 1880s occurred
Coffee leaf rust epidemics caused by Hemileia vastatrix,
so it was replaced with coffee arabica coffee and robusta coffee liberika. Year
1826 tea plants from China (small-leaved) were established, but 50 years
then replaced with Chinese teas Tea Assam (India) and newly planted
in plantations in North Sumatra in 1910. Sugar plantations began
developed around Jakarta (Batavia) in the 1830s, and then a new
shifted to the east, but in 1880 a sugar plantation endangered by
epidemic disease 'handover'. Cinchona plantations appeared in 1860 and
cigar tobacco plantations in 1864 in Klaten. Cacao plantations
cultivated in central Java in 1880 to replace the coffee plant
arabica leaf rust disease epidemic, then cocoa lindak
(Developed now) has been developed in the 1970s in
Northern Sumatra. Ficus Elastica rubber plantations in Java including plantations
the oldest in the world, but the new rubber plantation Hevea brasiliensis stand
Northern Sumatra in 1903 and in Java in 1906. Plantation youngest is
oil palm plantations began in northern Sumatra in 1911.
In this paper, the plant is used as an object of discussion
history is as plantation crops is still regarded as
agriculture plays an important role with respect to
increase in non-oil commodities (non-fuel) and gas is concerned with
intensification and expansion of plantations. Therefore, it can be argued
For example: an outbreak of smallpox leaf clovers (Phyllosticta sp.) and fall
corynespora leaves (Corynespora casicola) in rubber and penyakitpenyakit
other crops has always been a problem declining
foreign exchange. Thus the concept of strategy is required for certain
events are very detrimental not happen again, either on
plantation crops and other plants.
Looking further on Plant Disease Epidemiology in the future,
there are a number of physiological races between pathogens. Every major crops
can be attacked by 50 to 200 pathogens, while each species or
varieties of the plant in question always has a state setti
or factors that inhibit and in accordance with its development.
The concept of manipulating a variety of factors to suppress pathogens do
by plant disease experts and farmers themselves with respect to the cycle
disease, the development of the host plant and environmental influences on
the cycle and the interaction between the pathogen and its host. This concept has been
much discussed and applied to control the use
all components in one unit prevention plan with the aim of
optimal production output while maintaining agricultural ecosystems
and human environment
The state is the basic concept of disease management
have integrated an integral part of plant pathology
since pulahan years ago. Most plant diseases
controlled by prevention rather pembrantasan. This means that
that appropriate action is taken before the disease progressed to
Further to prevent explosions (out-break, epidemic peak). Way
disease control must be integrated with agricultural management package
modern, especially anything to do with the intermediary agent (vector,
weeds). Control of plant diseases can be done safely, effectively
and efficient, if understood socio-economic aspects, cultivation, biological, physical
and related chemical control methods.
Plant disease control is essentially a task and
kuwajiban farmers themselves. For Indonesian farmers who still holds
as 'the east', the achievements of civilization itself requires
material prosperity and spiritual well-being in the form of science
knowledge and wisdom that is rooted in religion
monotheism and here and there are still no additional confidence remains
animism and the like that can not be eliminated. Therefore
education and skills to farmers in Indonesia are not enough
just apply the science per se, but still need
using the wisdom handed down by our ancestors as a medium
counseling. Intensive skills-building should begin
children of farmers organized themselves well.
Plant Quarantine
Disease control with laws and regulations
aims to protect crops against pests in domestic
and new diseases that may be present in imported plants or
already in the area, but has not been found in other areas. Action
prohibition or restriction may be done depending kepda danger of pests
or illness, environmental conditions, type of vegetation and interests
economy. For example: import ban rubber plant from South America to
Indonesia, because there is a leaf disease caused by Microcyclus
ulei (= Dothidella ulei) that have not been found in Indonesia (No. 427 jo No. LN.
532, 1932), the ban brought banana plants, banana and chart-section
other banana plants from Sulawesi and from Minahasa to places and regions
others to prevent the spread of blood diseases caused by
Pseudomonas celebensis and many more restrictions and pembatasanpembatasan
are arranged in a quarantine laws and peraturanperaturan
implementation.
The use of seeds and seedlings
Use of healthy seeds and seedlings can be obtained from plants
planted in an area that there is no disease. It is therefore the seed that will
transmitted must have a certificate of health, purity, ability
adaptation to local conditions, the ability to produce, durability
to pests and diseases, agronomic traits and quality
regarding specific properties. To turn off or make a pathogen not
active to do the heating, storage or treatment with
pesticides. All treatments need to meet several requirements, among others:
can kill the pathogens in question, it can be done easily,
not to damage the seed, cheap price, and not harmful to people.
In choosing seeds or seedlings to note the type endurance
to pests and diseases. Are seeds or seedlings originating from
resistance breeding has vertical, horizontal or tolerance?.
Host population that all individuals have a general resistance is called
patodem, while all individual pathogen populations have
pathogenicity commonly called patotipe. If carried out a series of
inoculation, the number of illnesses caused by the interaction between the host and
pathogens showed no significant difference, then the resistance of plants
is called horizontal, while if there is a noticeable difference then endurance
called vertical. Resilience horizontal reaction was deferensial, work is not
so strikingly, durable (stable), the genes that determine hard
identified because it is polygenic. Resilience vertical reaction
deferensial, work is very strong, durable, genes can be determined
because it is monogenic. Among these was the so-called resistance
tolerant, namely: the plant is able to produce despite the great suffering
or suffered severe attacks.
Resilience vertical
Nowadays, many use seeds or seedlings that have resistance
vertical to chase high yields. In terms of epidemiology, no
some things to consider in using vertical resistance,
is as follows:
1. The existence of vertical variability of the host. Easy to implement vertical resilience
on annual crops, such as: cerealia, legumes, vegetables, potatoes, tomatoes,
tobacco, cotton, and other crops. For crop year or
semi-hard, such as: sugar cane, bananas and some hard fruits
applied, while for annual crops (hard), for example: tea, coffee,
cocoa, rubber, oranges, apples, coconut, and forest plants are not very practical or
simply can not be implemented. It should be noted also about
easy to hold breeding. Vertical Variability of host
have individual differences between plant species. Sugarcane is more
easily honored to have higher variability than the vertical
triploid bananas are more difficult glorified.
2. Type of plant disease epidemics. The existence of two types of epidemics are
mathematically analogous to a single interest and compound interest on loans
borrow money in the bank. More vertical resilience has meant to
single flower type disease of the type of compound interest. Fusarium,
Verticillium and bacterial wilt is a disease-causing types of flowers
single, while Phytophthora in potatoes is a cause of disease
compound interest.
3. Mutability of pathogens or pathogens mutate ease. Endurance
vertical rather not mean to pathogens that have mutability
vertical height. Mutability vertical type of pathogen can occur in flowers
types of single and compound interest. Synchitrium endobioticum and some
Fusarium has a low vertical mutability, while
Pseudomonas solanacearum has a high vertical mutability.
Among the types of diseases have compound interest Fuccinia graminis
mutability vertically lower than Puccinia polysora
and Phytophthora infestans can produce vertical patotipe
the season with a very small population. Vertical resilience against
disease, both in the field and in the laboratory will be quickly broken.
4. The genetic diversity of the host plant. Resilience is not so vertical
has meaning when the host plant populations that are genetically uniform
(Uniform) planted in large areas as single cultivars (monoculture)
For example, the wheat crop, the pathogen population (Puccinia
antirhini and Puccinia graminis) of an area should be minimal, genes
mix and rarely, the selection pressure on the new vertical patotipe
small, otherwise the vast population of wheat plants, genes and uniform
meeting the selection on a new vertical patodem very large, so
vertical resistance wheat crop will break.
5. Cropping pattern and the pattern of planting time. Cropping pattern of vertical resistance
the field is very important especially for the type of disease
compound interest. Monoculture affects the selection pressure on pathogens
particular, avoid monoculture is one way to control
disease type compound interest. The pattern of crop planting time
has a vertical resistance is particularly important step
to deal with a single flower type diseases. In crop rotation, one
stronger or more genes for vertical resistance should be available for
ensure that the maximum working pressure stability.
6. Host plant propagation tool. Resilience means less vertical to
face disease transmitted through vegetative propagation tool
host. Some diseases transmitted through vegetative means. When tools
The vegetative propagation have vertical resistance, it will be
patotipe vertical transmission followed suit. Initial inoculum later
be developed and the effect of vertical resistance will be lost.
7. Resistance level of protection. Resilience will be quickly broken vertical if
protection for a given security is not perfect .. Mechanism
vertical resistance should provide excellent protection against
patotipe, but if it is not perfect and will have less meaning
dangerous (very easily broken resistance).
8. Season or climate. Resilience vertical would have more value if there
season closes, such as the long dry season, will
new patotipe reduce pathogen populations. This is very important especially
to deal with the type of compound interest obligate parasites on crops.
In annual plants remain useless in use robustness
vertical despite the close season as it is still available network
host a sustainable (continue) during the dry season, so the
new patotipe keep growing.
9. Implementation of legislative control. Resilience will be more vertical
has meaning if legislative control run according to the rules
applicable. Control of the legislature include the prohibition of planting patodem
vertical to maintain the strength of vertical resistance.
For example, tight cultivars with resistance to disease warts vertical
(Synchitrium endobioticum). Pathogens are a group of pathogens
obligate parasites and vertical resistance mechanisms potato gives
perfect protection against vertical patotipe incompatible. Under
The state of the pathogen can defend itself only in the form of
resting spores which are vertical patotipe original, so can not be
patotipe generated new vertical and vertical resistance can not be broken.
Another form of legislative control to maintain the value
Vertical resistance is seed health certification and control patterns
planting.
10. Horizontal resistance level of usage. Vertical resilience seems
has greater meaning when reinforced with the use of resistance levels
horizontal. Level of horizontal resistance is typically very low,
but vertical resistance can be enhanced substantially if reinforced
with a useful level of horizontal resistance. An example of cultivars
vertifolia potatoes selected for resistance to vertical
Phytophthora infestans has lost its horizontal resistance in
breeding process, so consequently paada a vertical resistance
broken then vertifolia cultivars highly susceptible to Phytophthora. Phenomena
This is called 'vertifolia effect'.
Ten things mentioned above will be difficult to understand if there are no illustrations
in practice. Several examples will be presented in the following practice
in order to identify the above rules are numbered in a manner
brackets.
a) Wilt Fusarium oxysporum. This pathogen is a facultative parasite of the type
single flower (2). Host plant is a plant annuals (1) the
at least one is known to have strong genes, so that crop rotation can
performed (5), and the control is perfectly possible to
vertical resistance. Such control can be successful in plants
tomatoes and cabbage, but will fail if the rotation is not executed.
Such control does not work on banana plants panama
the panama disease (Fusarium oxysporum), because the banana is
crop year (half hard) is very difficult exalted (1) and
planted in large areas with a single clone (4) and disease as well
transmitted through vegetative material (6).
b) bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum. Endurance
vertically against the disease has been prepared on the potatoes, but
have no value because the pathogen has a vertical mutability
high (3), the lack of strong genes, diseases transmitted through the seed tubers
(6) and the difficulty to achieve a suitable legislative control (9) in
tropical agricultural areas where the disease is causing harm.
In fact, the SFR strain of the pathogen has been changed from a single flower type
a type of compound interest (2)
c) Coffee Rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix. Spores of coffee rust
waterborne. This means that on a scale plantations, individual
host population is a single tree and rust is a disease of the type of interest
single. On the scale of a single tree, and the individual is a single leaf rust
is compound interest disease (2). Therefore, the pattern in space is not
have meaning, because coffee is a perennial long-term (1),
there is a continuous host tissue (6) which will bring
patotipe corresponding vertical, so that the pattern in (5) can not be
performed. The use of vertical resistance against coffee rust very
carries a risk, but the risk can be reduced because the mutability
pathogens (3) is very low, in addition to possible reduce pathogenicity
horizontal to vertical resistance complex. In Côte d'Ivoire has
successfully developed that are resistant to coffee Arabusta Hemileia vastatrix
West African strain, is a hybrid coffee Arabica and Robusta and
produces Arabica coffee flavor with Robusta resistance.
d) on the potato late blight disease caused by Phytophthora
infestans. Potato late blight disease is a disease of flower types
Compound (2) caused by pathogens with vertical mutability
High (3) carried by the vegetative parts of potato (6) of the
genetically uniform crop (4). These factors more
favorable seasonal planting potatoes as a mechanism
vertical resistance provide perfect protection against patotipe
vertical incompatible (7) of the obligate parasites. Some genes are strong
known, the vertical resistance to blight disease so far
failed to control the disease, but the possibility of pattern
cropping (5) and the reinforcement of the horizontal resistance (10)
can help.
e) Rust tropical in corn caused by Puccinia polysora. Disease
corn rust is a disease of the type of compound interest (2) caused
by pathogens with a high vertical mutability (3), so that the resistance
vertical tropical maize plants against rust quickly broken and not worth
again. Corn is a plant with variegated gene and
be open pollination, resulting in a horizontal resistance level
adequate. Therefore, the vertical resistance would be useless and
not even necessary.
Cultivation of plants
To increase food production conducted farming
intensive (intensification) and expansion (extensification). Change
environment of the traditional ways of farming cultivation way with technology
Modern plant disease risks, which must be taken into account.
The use of land or land that is free of the disease should be
mean that the land or the land is relatively or completely free from
pathogens that can harm crops to be cultivated or
planted and other plants may contain pathogens. In Bengkulu many
opening new ground, as the former reed or former forest is often a
land or land that is free of pathogens depending on the type of plant to be
cultivated. Land will be former forest land or land that can be
is potentially the disease if the land is then cultivated
perennial crops as well, such as rubber, coffee, tea, cocoa, palm oil and
other annual crops, because the land there will be remnants of pathogens
roots of forest trees that can harm perennials
cultivated.
Parasite that primarily attacks the lush plants usually are parasites
obligate, whose life is dependent upon living cells, such as pathogens
rust (Puccinia arachidis) in peanuts, corn rust pathogen (Puccinia
polysora), downy mildew pathogen of corn (Scleroperonospora maydis), wheat pathogen
on rubber, citrus, tobacco (Oidium spp.), smallpox pathogens in tea
(Exobasidium vexans), coffee rust pathogen (Hemileia vastatrix), and
paenyakit-diseases caused by viruses, Mycoplasma and Spiroplasma
on the kinds of crops or annual. The use of nitrogen
that too many do not have a direct influence on
incidence of rust but will increase the number of leaves and water content.
The intensity of the disease and vulnerability is influenced by plant
the use of nitrogen. Wheat rust disease and stimulated by N of nitrate
(NO3) but inhibited by N from ammonium (NH4). The increase in weight
flour disease as a result of NO3 coupled with
increase in leaf area. Nevertheless leaf resistance, which depends
to age, may increase again as a result of the addition of the use of
forms of nitrogen. Pathogens Desclera turcica in maize, it was the emergence of
disease resistant varieties (resistant) will be reduced as NO3,
otherwise the use of NH4 on susceptible rice varieties that will add
onset of Pyricularia oryzae.
Plants that are weak or that grow on less fertile soil easily
physiological illness and easily attacked by parasites weak
which usually causes leaf spot and root rot. In soils
with few experienced weathering with low pH (acidic) will
favorable to his root fungus, whereas land
with high pH (5.2 to 5.7) is easily contracted scurvy. Intensity
root rot of tobacco caused by Thielaviopsis
basicola will decrease if given the sulfuric acid but will increase if given
phosphoric acid. This suggests that the addition of the same element to the ground
of different compounds may result in the development of disease
differently.
Parasites are transmitted through the soil less able to survive in the soil
that are too wet, because other microorganisms that are antagonik
(Eg Trichoderma, Verticillium) will become more active. Soil texture
The lighter will be preferred by some parasites such as nematodes, fungi
Brick red roots (Poria hypolateritia), brown root fungus (Phellinus lamaensis),
whereas bacterial diseases on cotton (Xanthomonas malvacearum),
red wine mushroom roots (Ganoderma pseudoferreum), red purple mushroom roots
(Spherotilbe repens) abundant in heavy textured soils.
Plant roots and soil borne pathogens occupy the same environment,
aerasinya example. Changes in soil aeration may affect
plant susceptibility, pathogen virulence, or both, so that the incidence
disease will be affected by the state of soil aeration. Sugarcane root rot
caused by Pythium arrenomones have investigated the influence 'salisylic
aldehyde is normally found in soils poor drainage.
This substance causes the poisoning of the cane in concentration
relatively high, but have little effect on the concentration
lower. However, weight reduction due to inoculation with plant
mushrooms are nearly 6 times if there salisylic aldehyde.
Areas that rain is irregular or has dry periods
long, irrigation is essential to improve production
agriculture. However, the provision of water will affect the moisture
land and generally add to the weight of the attack soil borne pathogens,
for example: Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia spp. Irrigation is allowed
grow plants out of season, so crop rotation is usually less
note. This resulted in an earlier attack. By
because it means investing large irrigation only profitable if
plants to be cultivated to have a high market value and action
crop protection needs to be done as early as possible. For penyakitpenyakit
, eg black foot rot caused by Rosella
Phytophthora parasitica, inundation depth of 20 cm or more
deadly pathogens. Pengenangan one month before planting tobacco
Lanas greatly reduce disease caused by Phytophthora
nicotianae and foster antagonistic fungi. However
Thus if drainage will be ugly germs.
When spreading the seed, plant it and plant spacing is
one of the things that must be considered in the control of plant diseases,
because the effect on the environment created from growth
plant and soil nutrient competition. Many plants are more
susceptible to disease when young. To control the
downy mildew on maize recommended to plant corn early,
so much rain during the season, the plants are large enough and
resistant to downy mildew. In Japan early planting rice instead
increase the incidence of blast disease, whereas in Africa planting beans
initial soil is a precaution against the rosette disease
caused by a virus and transmitted by Aphis.
Planting too deep which means the likelihood of
affected by soil borne parasites, because sprouts too long in the
ground. Likewise plantings provide an environment that is too tight
very good to parasites whose development is assisted by
high humidity, such as Pythium spp. cause rot disease
rod, otherwise dense planting peanuts can reduce
a viral infection that is transmitted by APHIS, suppress weed competition and
can increase the number of results.
Plant maintenance performed by farmers in general in the form of
sanitation treatment sometimes inadvertently help
the spread of pathogens. For example: when weeding or find a caterpillar,
viral disease that can be transmitted mechanically to expand, as
tobacco mosaic and mottle in peanuts. In weeding, except
reduce competition between weeds with host plants, as well as have
considered as an alternate host plants of the vector or the host of
pathogen itself. For example, for tobacco mosaic, other host plants
is tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), ceplukan (Physalis angulaata), eggplant
(Solanum melongena), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), melon (Cucumis sp.)
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), wild tobacco (Nicotiana glutinosa). For
crackers on tobacco diseases, pathogen carriers (vectors) in the form of flies
white (Bemissia tabaci) can survive on weeds wedusan (Ageratum
conyzoides), srunen (Sunedrella nodiflora), and tomatoes. Host of tungro virus
in rice, among others: celulang grass (Eleusine indica), Tuton (Echinochloa
colonum), Jawan (Echinochloa crugalli) and others. As it is known that
tungro virus disease and yellow dwarf is transmitted by green leafhoppers
(Nephotettix impicticeps), while the brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens)
transmit the virus dwarf grasses and dwarf vacuum in rice, so one
Effective control is mop up the grass host
virus and the remnants of the rice plant.
Cutting cane seeds can cause infectious diseases blendok
(Xanthomonas albilineans) that can be prevented by disinfecting ax
or cutter with lysol. Seeds and plant maintenance should always
attention to the cleanliness of the workers with the conduct disinfection
use soap or trisodium phosphate substances tanners to make
inactivated pathogen. Sanitation procedures can also be done by way of
destroys or removes diseased plant parts
ill carefully to reduce the source of transmission, so that the disease does not
widespread. For example, eliminating the orange tree branches are attacked
Diplodia natalensis, cutting parts of plants with the fungus
upas (Corticium salmonicolor)
The use of protective tree frequent to add material
organic, reduce evaporation and sometimes to improve
quality of crop production (eg in tea), must be calculated to
kerimbunannya. Shade trees are too dense will enhance
garden moisture and reduce the entry of sunlight. This will
very helpful attack various pathogens especially Exobasidium
vexans causes smallpox tea. Demikain also trees need protection
calculated to sensitivity to root fungus, insect vectors
which can attack the staple crop. For example: Lamtoro (Leucaena glauca)
sensitive to brown root fungus (Phellinus lamaensis), black root fungus
(Rosellinia bunodes), mushroom cancer sides (Armilaria Melea), fungal root collar
(Ustulina maxima) that the infection is usually through a wound caused by weeding.
Dadap shade trees (Erythrina subumbrans) are widely used by farmers
Bengkulu south as the coffee plant shade trees and tree climbing
pepper plants. Dadap brown roots are sensitive to mold, mildew divisive cancer,
red root fungus, mushroom root collar, and a white root fungus.
Post-harvest
Damage to plants and crops often occurs because harvesting
that is not timely and less carefully executed. Tapping
latex is too heavy and assisted with high humidity will
cause many diseases, such as moldy rot (Ceratostomella fimbriata),
cancer lines, cancer, and cancer spots clot (Phytophthora palmivora) and
brown skin diseases (Pythium complectans). Harvesting tobacco
too slow and wet will increase attack slave (Cercospora
nicotianae). Harvesting of potato tubers and rhizomes of ginger were inadvertently
will cause injury, which makes Fusarium infection and
post-harvest bacteria that cause dry rot (Fusarium) and foul
wet (bacteria). Throughout the storage period must be sought
combination of temperature, humidity and ventilation. Will be less precise
if you keep fruits and vegetables fresh tropical origin, such as: mango
(Manggifera indica) and banana (Musa paradisica) at low temperature (
less than 10 ° C) in a long time (over 12 hours), because the fruit will
damaged by cooling. Keep in mind that every material has a requirement
its own temperature to keep it fresh.
Pathogenic diseases of the stored crop can be distinguished
contained in the dry ingredients, such as beans and memerasit cerealia
host plants are fleshy. The first (dry matter), usually works
very slow and tolerant confines of humidity and temperature over
wide, while the second (the fleshy material) often develop
high speed and requires temperatures above 35oF (= 28oC) and
high humidity. Post-harvest diseases in rice characterized the pebusukan
dry and sometimes there are no symptoms. Generally
fungal spores germinate in water content above 14%. Limit
water content is different for various species of fungi, temperature and
moisture storage. Some fungi can release toxins
(Mycotoxins) that are harmful, such as the Penicillium citrinum
issued a yellow pigment and citrinin toxic substance (C13H14O5), a
crystal, Penicillium slandicum produce toxic substances such as crystal
islanditoxin (C26H33O8N5Cl2). Not all poisonous yellow rice, for example,
yellow rice is attacked by Trichoderma sp.dan Pseudomonas sp. nor
yellow rice harvested young as non-toxic. Recommended for
drying of grain or rice until the water content is less than 14% and
storage humidity below 70%. Mycotoxins
found in agricultural products, in addition to dangerous for humans too
harmful to livestock. Aflatoxin produced by a group of fungi
Aspergillus, include: Aspergillus flavus, A. Parasiticus, A. Oryzae. A. Niger
as well as several other fungi such as Penicillium puberulum, P. frequentants.
Given there are eight kinds of aflatoxin, namely: B1 (C17H12O6); B2; B2A; G1
(C17H12O7), G2; G2a; M1 and M2. Aflatoxin B2 and G2 respectively
is derived dihidroaflatoxin B1 and G1, aflatoxin B2A and G2a
consecutive 2-derived dihidroksiaflatoxin B2 and G2, whereas
aflatoxin M1 and M2 respectively are derived 4-hidroksiaflatoxin B1
and B2. Which have higher power is poison aflatoxin B1, then
followed by aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin B2 and G2 new M, whereas aflatoxin B2A
G2a and virtually non-toxic. It is recommended that at the time
drying (beans) maintained not to many pods
broken or damaged because of other factors that can foster mold
producing aflatoxin.
Pesticide
The term pesticide (nuisance pest = + = caedo killer) in terms of
Language is the killer bully, but the term is often not understood
by farmers and the public, which translates into toxic pest or
anti-pest. The term drug becomes confusing, because in
everyday meaning of the drug is the healer of disease. To avoid
accidents and things that are not desirable in language education
advised to use the term toxic pest pesticides, toxins
insects to insecticides, rat poison for rodensida, poison grass for
herbicides, and fungicides for fungal toxins.
The use of pesticides in plant disease control must
calculated economic return, including safety issues
human impact on the environment. It is therefore recommended
control is "Bioenvironmental control" (biological control
consider the environment) be a top priority, while
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